Several impressive construction feats were associated with the GTR: the first successful bridging of the St. Lawrence River on August 25, , with the opening of the first Victoria Bridge at Montreal replaced by the present structure in ; the bridging of the Niagara River between Fort Erie, Ontario and Buffalo, New York ; and the construction of a tunnel beneath the St. The latter work opened in August and replaced the railcar ferry at the same location.
To overcome the gauge difference , the GTR experimented with a form of variable-gauge axles called "adjustable gauge trucks", but these proved unreliable. Clair River being operated as the GTW. The company also sold the line along the St. As the dominant railway in British North America, GTR was reportedly asked by the federal government soon after Confederation to consider building a rail line to the Pacific coast at British Columbia but refused, forcing the government to enact legislation creating the Canadian Pacific Railway CPR to meet British Columbia's conditions for joining Confederation.
By the early 20th century, GTR desired to operate in Western Canada , particularly given the virtual monopoly of service that CPR maintained and the lucrative increasing flows of immigrants west of Ontario. CNoR decided to build its own transcontinental system at this time, forcing GTR in to enter into an agreement with Wilfrid Laurier 's government to build a third railway system from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
His death is speculated to have contributed to poor management of GTR over the ensuing decade, and also contributed to the abandonment of the uncompleted Southern New England Railway to Providence, Rhode Island , begun in It was a transcontinental system, with the only exception being the NTR's ill-fated Quebec Bridge , which would not be completed for several more years. The first indication the arrangement with the government was faltering came when GTR refused to operate the NTR, citing economic reasons.
With the enormous cost of building the GTPR and the limited financial returns being realized, GTR defaulted on loan payments to the federal government in GTR underwent serious financial difficulties as a result of the GTPR, and its shareholders, primarily in the United Kingdom, were determined to prevent the company from being nationalized as well. Eventually on July 12, , GTR was placed under control of another federal government Board of Management while legal battles continued for several more years. Canadian Rail speculated in that an independent GTR might have survived had it always used standard gauge.
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Inflated construction costs, overestimated revenues, and an inadequate initial capitalization threatened bankruptcy for the Grand Trunk. Sir Joseph Hickson was a key executive from to based in Montreal who kept it afloat financially and formed an alliance with the Conservative party.
Carlos and Lewis show that it managed to survive because its British investors accurately assessed the corporation's value and prospects, which included the likelihood that the Canadian government would bail out the railway should it ever default on its bonds. The government had guaranteed a very large loan and had enacted legislation authorizing debt restructuring.
These arrangements allowed the company to float new bond issues to replace existing debt and to issue securities in lieu of interest. American executive Charles Melville Hays joined the Grand Trunk in as general manager and in , president, based in Montreal. Hays was the architect of the great expansion during a colourful and free-spending era.
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Figure 1. Clinical signs Unlike humans, infection of dogs by B. Table 1 Key clinical and diagnostic features to consider for possible LD in dogs. Diagnostic options In dogs, confirmation of clinical LD through laboratory testing can be challenging 30 , 31 , 35 ; therefore, it is recommended that a LD diagnosis be based on 5 key criteria Table 1.
Treatment recommendations According to the consensus statement of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine ACVIM , treatment should only be initiated in dogs displaying clinical signs consistent with LD, with evidence of exposure to LD risk areas and support from diagnostic laboratory tests 30 Table 1. Preventive measures Since there is great regional variability in LD risk across the country and within each province, preventive measures should be encouraged where appropriate; recommendations for tick control should take into account the observed timing of infestations on pets in your practice area.
Check for ticks daily and promptly remove ticks after being in high-risk areas. Key points. Figure 2. Lyme borreliosis in dogs and humans in the USA. Trends Parasitol. The emergence of Lyme disease in Canada.
Can Med Assoc J. Littman MP. Lyme nephritis. J Vet Emerg Crit Car. Predicting the speed of tick invasion: An empirical model of range expansion for the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis in Canada. J Appl Ecol. Passive surveillance for I. J Med Entomol. Active and passive surveillance and phylogenetic analysis of Borrelia burgdorferi elucidate the process of Lyme disease risk emergence in Canada. Environ Health Persp. Associations between Ixodes scapularis ticks and small mammal hosts in a newly endemic zone in southeastern Canada: Implications for Borrelia burgdorferi transmission.
Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. Tsao JI. Reviewing molecular adaptations of Lyme borreliosis spirochetes in the context of reproductive fitness in natural transmission cycles. Vet Res. Schwan TG, Piesman J. Vector interactions and molecular adaptations of Lyme disease and relapsing fever spirochetes associated with transmission by ticks. Emerg Infect Dis. Cook MJ. Lyme borreliosis: A review of data on transmission time after tick attachment. Int J Gen Med. Environmental risk from Lyme disease in central and eastern Canada: A summary of recent surveillance information.
Seroprevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Ehrlichia canis , and Dirofilaria immitis among dogs in Canada. Does high biodiversity reduce the risk of Lyme disease invasion? Parasit Vectors. J Vector Ecol. Role of migratory birds in introduction and range expansion of Ixodes scapularis ticks and of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Canada.
Appl Environ Microb. Estimated effects of projected climate change on the basic reproductive number of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis. Environ Health Perspect. Abundance of Ixodes scapularis Acari : Ixodidae larvae and nymphs in relation to host density and habitat on Long Point, Ontario. Investigation of ground level and remote-sensed data for habitat classification and prediction of survival of Ixodes scapularis in habitats of southeastern Canada.
Genetic structure of the white-footed mouse in the context of the emergence of Lyme disease in southern Quebec. Ecol Evol. Harvested white-tailed deer as sentinel hosts for early establishing Ixodes scapularis populations and risk from vector-borne zoonoses in Southeastern Canada. Geography, deer, and host bio-diversity shape the pattern of Lyme disease emergence in the thousand islands archipelago of Ontario, Canada. Plos One. Biodiversity and Lyme disease: Dilution or amplification? Prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in Ixodes scapularis Acari: Ixodidae nymphs collected in managed red pine forests in Wisconsin.
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January 15—16 Dispersion and sampling of adult Dermacentor andersoni in rangeland in Western North America. Ecological niche modeling of Lyme disease in British Columbia, Canada. Reisen WK. Landscape epidemiology of vector-borne diseases. Annu Rev Entomol.
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